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The Surface Composition of Mercury

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Geochemical data from MESSENGER have revealed details of Mercury’s surface composition, showing that it differs from the other rocky planets in the inner solar system. For example, the planet’s surface is enriched in S and C, and depleted in Fe, indicating that Mercury formed under much more reducing conditions than other planets. The surface is also enriched in Mg and depleted in Al and Ca. Observed elemental heterogeneities and percent levels of graphite suggest that Mercury underwent a magma ocean phase early in its history. These findings have important implications for understanding Mercury’s origin and evolution.

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December 2025 --The Variscan Orogeny in Europe – Understanding Supercontinent Formation

The Variscan orogen formed between 380 and 300 million years ago through several accretionary and collisional cycles, culminating with the construction of the Pangea supercontinent. This process occurred via sequential opening and closure of oceanic basins, synchronous detachment of Gondwana derived continental ribbons, and their outboard amalgamation onto the Laurussia margin. The Variscan orogen is rather unique compared with other orogenic belts on Earth: its overthickened and dominantly magmatic crust in the central belt, surprisingly minor mantle involvement in the magmatic and geodynamic processes, coherent and pulsed magmatism along the collision suture, and its complex accretionary history. Because its final product, Pangea, is the youngest and best-understood supercontinent on Earth, the Variscan orogeny offers clues for understanding the mechanisms of supercontinent formation.